What Makes Civilization Read online

  Other works referred to include B. Anderson, Imagined Communities (London/New York: Verso, 1991); J. Assmann, The Search for God in Ancient Egypt, trans. D. Lorton (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2001); J. Bottéro, The Oldest Cuisine in the World: Cooking in Mesopotamia, trans. T. L. Fagan (Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press, 2004); H. Frankfort, Kingship and the Gods: A Study of Ancient Near Eastern Religion as the Integration of Society and Nature (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1948); W. Helck, Untersuchungen zu den Beamtentiteln des ägyptischen Alten Reiches (Glückstadt/New York: J. J. Augustin, 1954); A. J. Mayer, The Persistence of the Old Regime: Europe to the Great War (New York: Pantheon, 1981); D. O’Connor, ‘Context, Function and Program: Understanding Ceremonial Slate Palettes’, Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt 39 (2002), 5–25; B. Wells, ‘Law and Practice’, in D. C. Snell (ed.), A Companion to the Ancient Near East (Oxford: Blackwell, 2005); William II, German Emperor, Das Königtum in alten Mesopotamien (Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1938). Current investigations on the Giza plateau are documented at http://www.aeraweb. org/gpmp_home.asp, with links to related projects.

  Chapter 9. Enlightenment From a Dark Source

  For an authoritative treatment of the relationship between antiquarianism and constitutional law in northern Europe, see John G. A. Pocock, The Ancient Constitution and the Feudal Law: A Study of English Historical Thought in the Seventeenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1957). Alain Schnapp, The Discovery of the Past: The Origins of Archaeology (London: British Museum Press, 1996), provides an illustrated survey of the development of scientific prehistory in its wider social and political contexts, and Philip Schwyzer offers an engaging analysis of the emergence of the ‘archaeological imagination’ as an outcome of tensions in early modern society: Archaeologies of English Renaissance Literature (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007). Isaac Newton’s writings on the ancient Near East can be viewed at http://www.newtonproject.sussex.ac.uk. The Chicago tympanum is further considered by Mogens Larsen, ‘Orientalism and Near Eastern Archaeology’, in Daniel Miller et al. (eds.), Domination and Resistance (London: Unwin Hyman, 1989), 229–39.

  Other works referred to include J. H. Breasted, The Dawn of Conscience (New York/London: Scribner, 1934); V. Gordon Childe, New Light on the Most Ancient East: The Oriental Prelude to European Prehistory (London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1934); idem, Man Makes Himself (London: Watts, 1936); E. Said, Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient, 4th edn. (London: Penguin, 1995).

  Chapter 10. Ruined Regimes: Egypt at the Revolution

  Changing displays and adaptations of ancient Egyptian imagery in France before and after the Revolution are richly documented in James S. Curl, Egyptomania: The Egyptian Revival (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1994); and see also Jean-Marcel Humbert, L’Égypte à Paris (Paris: Action Artistique de la Ville de Paris, 1997); idem et al., Egyptomania: Egypt in Western Art, 1730–1930 (Ottawa: National Gallery of Canada; Paris: Réunion des Musées Nationaux, 1994). A number of excellent studies deal with the early development of the Louvre, among them Cecil Gould, Trophy of Conquest: The Musée Napoleon and the Creation of the Louvre (London: Faber and Faber, 1965); Andreu Guillemette et al., L’Égypte ancienne au Louvre (Paris: Hachette, 1997); Andrew McClellan, Inventing the Louvre: Art, Politics, and the Origins of the Modern Museum in Eighteenth-Century Paris (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994). More detailed discussion of the Napoleonic expedition to Egypt, and its consequences, is found in Edward Said, Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the Orient, 4th edn. (London: Penguin, 1995); Patrice Bret, L’éxpedition d’Égypte: une entreprise des lumières, 1798–1801 (Paris: Technique et Documentation, 1999); Terence M. Russell, The Discovery of Egypt: Vivant Denon’s Travels with Napoleon’s Army (Stroud: Sutton, 2005). For the importance of female icons in revolutionary art and ideology, see Maurice Agulhon, Marianne into Battle: Republican Imagery and Symbolism in France, 1789–1880, trans. Janet Lloyd (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981).

  Other works referred to include J. Assmann, Moses the Egyptian: The Memory of Egypt in Western Monotheism (Cambridge, MA/London: Harvard University Press, 1997); P. Hughes, ‘Ruins of Time: Estranging History and Ethnology in the Enlightenment and After’, in D. O. Hughes and T. R. Trautmann (eds.), Time: Histories and Ethnologies (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1995), 269–90; J. Michelet, History of the French Revolution, trans. C. Cocks (Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press, 1967 [1879-80]); J-M. Moiret, Memories of Napoleon’s Egyptian Expedition, trans. Rosmary Brindle (London: Greenhill, 2001 [1798-1801]); M. Ozouf, Festivals and the French Revolution, trans. Alan Sheridan (Cambridge, MA/London: Harvard University Press, 1988); C. F. Volney, The Ruins, or, Meditation on the Revolutions of Empires (Baltimore: Classic Press, 1991 [1890; 1791]).

  PICTURE ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

  Krzysztof Ciałowicz and the Tell el-Farkha Expedition: 1; National Museum, Damascus/Erich Lessing/ akg-images: 2; Institute of Archaeology, University College London: 3; Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford/The Bridgeman Art Library: 4; The Petrie Museum, University College London: 5; The Trustees Of The British Museum: 6; The Israel Museum, Jerusalem/The Bridgeman Art Library: 7; after H. Frankfort, Cylinder Seals (London: Macmillan, 1938); P. Amiet, La glyptique mésopotamienne archaïque (Paris: CNRS, 1980): 8; Augusta McMahon and the Tell Brak Expedition: 9; Aleppo Museum/Philippe Maillard/ akg-images: 10; Werner Forman Archive: 11; Cuneiform Digital Library/Ashmolean Museum, University of Oxford: 12; Musée du Louvre Paris/Gianni Dagli Orti/ The Art Archive: 13; after Abhandlungen der Preussichen Akademie der Wissenschaften 13 (1936); W. B. Emery, The Tomb of Hemaka (Cairo: Government Press, 1938): 14; after R. Lepsius, Denkmäler aus Ägypten und Äthiopien (Leipzig: Hinrichs, 1913): 15; Ancient Egypt Research Associates: 16; Erich Lessing/akg-images: 17; Special Collections Research Center, University of Chicago Library (apf2-05517): 18; Private collection/Dahesh Museum of Art, New York: 19; Musée d’art moderne Richard Anacréon, Granville, France/akg-images: 20.

  INDEX

  Abu Rawash (Egypt) 140

  Abusir (Egypt) 146

  Abydos (Egypt) 7, 138, 141

  Acosta, José de (1539–1600) 4–5

  Afghanistan xviii, 35–6, 80, 95–6, 103–4, 175

  agriculture, see farming

  Akkadian language 15, 69

  alcoholic drinks, see beer wine

  almond 58

  altar 134–5

  see also sacrifice

  ‘Amarna Letters 128

  Anatolian Plateau 79–80, 91–7, 103–5

  ancestors 48, 97, 123, 135

  see also skull cult

  ancien régime xvi, 162–73

  animals

  domestication xiii, 39–41, 52–3

  in art and writing 61–3, 81, 145–6

  traction 36, 77, 105, 137, 139

  Anshan (western Iran) 24

  antiquarianism 154–6

  Arabian Sea 36, 43, 55, 64

  Aravalli Mountains 103

  amber 102

  arsenic 58, 94

  Ashur (Qal’at Sherqat, Iraq) 79

  Assyriology 14, 110, 158

  Aswan (Egypt) 15, 140

  Atrahasis 117, 125

  Bactria-Margiana civilization, see Oxus civilization

  Badakhshan 36–7

  see also Afghanistan

  Bahrain, see Dilmun

  Baltic Sea 102

  basketry 46, 131

  beer 48, 60, 78, 85, 122, 137, 139, 142

  Bell, Gertrude (1869–1926) xiii, 1

  biblical texts xiv, 14, 112–13, 157

  Black Sea 72, 102

  body, as social metaphor and symbol 51, 74

  body ornamentation, see cosmetics jewellery

  Bonaparte, Napoleon (1769–1821) 4, 161–2, 166–9

  Botero, Giovanni (1544–1617) 4

  Boulanger, Nicolas-Antoine (1722–1759) 2–3

  Bourbon monarchy, see ancien régime
/>   branding 84–7

  bread 48, 60, 78, 85, 122, 137, 139, 144

  Breasted, James Henry (1865–1935) 6–7, 159

  Breughel, P. the Elder (c.1525–1569) 131

  bronze 30, 40, 66, 79, 88–9, 93–7, 103–5, 139

  bullae 63–4

  bureaucracy 29, 30, 55, 61–4, 72, 82–3, 87, 98, 122

  Byblos (Jbeil, Lebanon) 19–22, 33, 105, 128, 140, 146, 157

  Caspian Sea 23, 58

  Caucasus Mountains 88, 103–4, 105

  cedar 19, 21–3, 39, 112, 132–3, 141–3

  cereal domestication, see farming, origins of

  Chagai Hills 36

  Champollion, Jean François (1790–1832) 171

  Childe, Vere Gordon (1892–1957) 54, 56, 7I, 159

  China 91

  chronology 155–7

  see also Three Age System

  Cilicia 24, 55, 104

  civilization xvi–xix, 1–14, 159–62, 165–6, 174–6

  Marcel Mauss on 19

  clay 25–6, 41, 57, 61–4, 77, 81, 86, 117–18, 123, 131, 133, 135

  climate change, see ‘dark millennium’

  Collingwood, Robin George (1889–1943) 100

  colonisation 42, 72

  see also Uruk Expansion

  commodities 26, 30–1, 36, 41, 57–63, 68–72, 75–7, 80–7, 92–3, 107–8, 111–16, 123–4

  constitutional law 129, 155–6

  see also law codes

  cooking practices xvii, xviii, 47–8, 57, 121, 135

  see also sacrifice

  copper 22, 24, 40, 56, 58, 66, 80, 88, 93–6, 102–6, 116, 133–4

  cosmetics 50, 137

  cosmology 23, 35, 38, 116–20, 123–4, 145, 148

  see also myth

  craft skills 55, 61, 84, 91, 98, 110–14, 141

  see also metallurgy, pottery, jewellery

  Crete 25

  cuneiform script 23, 25–6, 37, 55, 66, 67, 71–85, 117, 158

  Cyprus 43, 104

  Dahshur (Egypt) 140

  dairy production 44, 68–9, 78–9, 81, 84, 86, 137

  Danube River 102, 105, 156

  ‘dark millennium’ 64–5

  Dasht-e Kavir 36, 91

  Dasht-e Lut 36, 91

  date palm 58

  decipherment 14, 158, 171

  Deh Luran (Iran) 42

  Değirmentepe (Turkey) 57

  Description de l’Égypte (1809–28) 167

  Dilmun 23, 91, 104, 131

  Diyala River 104, 134

  Djoser 140

  donkey, as pack animal 36, 61, 75, 79, 93, 136

  ‘dynastic realm’ 126–8, 162

  see also ancien régime

  Eanna complex (Uruk) 74, 84, 99

  Ebla (Tell Mardikh, Syria) 16, 26–7, 37, 82, 93, 96, 104, 128

  Egypt

  gods 8, 22, 27, 30–3, 48, 74, 112, 118–24, 127, 129, 130, 134, 143–4, 146–9, 175

  kingship 127–30, 139–49

  unification of 136–8

  Egyptology 14, 158, 171

  Elam (south-west Iran) 24, 26, 128

  see also Susa

  Elburz Mountains 91

  Elephantine (Egypt) 15

  Eliade, Mircea (1907–1986) 56

  Enlightenment 2, 8, 158

  Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta 69–70, 78–81

  empire 2, 5–6, 14, 28–9, 106, 166–9

  Epic of Creation 118

  Epic of Gilgamesh 21, 32, 44, 66–7, 125

  Eridu (Tell Abu Shahrain, Iraq) 78

  estates 79, 83, 92, 141

  Euphrates River 15, 21, 26, 28–9, 36, 46, 58–9, 65, 71–2, 78, 80, 117, 165

  Eurasian metallogenic belt 88–9

  faience 33

  ‘false door’ 139

  farming see also horticulture plough agriculture

  origins of xiii, 41–9, 52–3

  secondary innovations 58–9, 75, 137

  Febvre, Lucien (1878–1956) 1

  ‘Fertile Crescent’ 6–7, 41–4, 47, 52, 57–9, 61, 71, 104

  fig 58

  fishing 43, 47, 53, 64

  folk tales 100

  Frankfort, Henri (1897–1954) 1, 15–16, 127, 134

  French Revolution (1789–1799) 162–70

  Freud, Sigmund (1856–1939) 3

  Fukuyama, Francis (b. 1952) 8–9

  Ganges River 102–3

  Garner, Lieutenant General J. M. 161

  Giza Plateau (Egypt) 14, 140–1, 160

  glass 33–4

  ‘Glorious Revolution’ (1688) xv, 157

  Göbekli Tepe (Turkey) 43–4

  gods, see Egypt Mesopotamia gold 24, 32–6, 40, 56, 79, 80, 88, 94–6, k>9, 112–13, 116, 133–4,140

  gneiss 140

  granite 140

  Greco-Roman texts xiv–xv, 4, 14, 38, 157, 174

  Gudea 132–6, 149

  Habuba Kabira (Syria) 71

  Halil River 37

  Hammurabi 129, 160

  Harappan civilization see Indus Valley

  Hatshepsut 146

  Herodotus 105, 160

  hieratic script 25

  Hierakonpolis (ancient Nekhen, Egypt) 116

  hieroglyphic script 14–15, 25, 158–9, 171

  Himalayas 88, 93, 103

  hoarding (of metals) 100–7

  horticulture 28, 58

  Homer 32, 38, 157

  Hotman, François (1524–1590) 155

  house, as social metaphor and symbol 50–1

  hunting 41, 43, 47, 53, 64, 72

  Huntington, Samuel (1927–2008) xvii, xix, 8–13, 20, 22, 166

  Ice Age xiii, 42

  Inanna’s Descent to the Underworld 113–14

  incense xviii, 23, 112, 121, 134–5, 137–8, 144, 146–7

  Indian Ocean 34, 88

  Indo-European 6–7, 105

  Indus script 26

  Indus Valley xviii, 12, 24–6, 37–8, 65, 73–4, 90, 93–6, 103, 128

  Industrial Revolution 54, 79

  ingot currency 92, 96–7, 103, 108, 111

  Iraq Museum (also known as the National Museum of Iraq) xiii

  Iranian Plateau 36–7, 58, 72, 80, 91, 94, 128

  irrigation 28–30, 77

  Jericho (‘Ain es-Sultan, Palestine) 42

  jewellery 38, 95, 98

  Jiroft (Iran) 37

  Jordan Valley 42, 46

  Judean Mountains 42, 58

  Kanesh (Kültepe, Turkey) 79

  Karakum Desert 91

  Khufu 141

  kingship, see ancien régime

  dynastic realm

  Egypt

  Mesopotamia

  Kokcha River 96

  Kolonna (Aigina) 95

  Kopet Dagh 91

  kurgan 105

  Kyzylkum Desert 91

  Lagash (Tell al-Hiba, Iraq) 67, 98–9, 131

  lamentation texts 99

  lapis lazuli 24, 31, 33–41, 80, 95, 98–9, 114, 134

  Larsa (Tell Senkereh, Iraq) 78

  law codes 75, 129

  lead 56

  looting xiii, 15, 98–9, 162

  Louvre (as palace and museum) xv, 129, 170–2

  Luristan 104–5

  Magan 24, 133

  Makran coast 24, 36, 91

  Mameluke 167–8

  Marhashi (central Iran) 24

  Mari (Tell Hariri, Syria) 26, 34, 37, 39, 82

  maritime trade 20, 23, 36–7, 43, 52, 65, 78, 93, 95, 128–9, 136–7, 140, 146

  Marx, Karl (1818–1883) 29, 82

  Maspéro, Gaston (1846–1916) 7

  mathematics 82–3, 157

  Mauss, Marcel (1872–1950) 19, 106–8

  meat, see cooking sacrifice

  Mediterranean xiii, 15, 21, 24, 33, 36–7, 55, 72, 93, 136, 140

  Meluha, see Indus Valley Memphis (Egypt) 128, 140, 157

  Mesopotamia gods 22, 27, 30–1, 35, 48, 66–7, 70 74, 85, 97–99, 109–24, 129–36

  kingship 27, 34–5, 39, 66–7, 69–71, 118, 125–36, 146

&nbs
p; metallurgy xvii, 56–8, 95

  see also arsenic bronze copper lead gold silver tin

  hoarding

  metrology 72, 84, 92, 96

  Michelet, Jules (1798–1874) 163, 169, 170, 172

  modernity 153–4, 166, 171–3

  Mohenjo-daro (Pakistan) 38, 73, 74

  Moiret, Capt. Joseph-Marie 168–9

  money, prehistory of 105–8

  see also ingot currency

  monumental architecture xvii, 4 14, 16, 27, 42, 44, 74, 137–8, 140–1, 145–6

  mummies, as popular display xiv, xvi, 169

  mummification 33, 50, 138, 143–5

  Murghab Delta 91

  museums 170–2

  see also Cairo Museum Iraq Museum Louvre

  Mycenae 34

  myth 7 35, 67, 69–70, 113–5, 116–20, 123, 130

  Narmer 137

  Negev Desert 58

  Neolithic societies 12, 39–53, 108, 145

  Newton, Isaac (1643–1727) xv, 157–8

  Nile River 15, 22, 28–9, 42, 90, 128–9, 143

  Nubia 22, 25, 52, 137, 140, 146

  Ohalo (Israel) 48

  olive 58, 139

  Oman, see Magan

  Opening of the Mouth 121, 143

  Oppenheim, A. Leo (1904–1974) 109–112

  Orange, Maurice Henri (1868–1916) 169–70

  Oriental Institute, Chicago 6, 159–60

  Ottoman Empire 5–8, 165–6

  Oxus civilization 16, 91, 104

  palaces (ancient) 27, 30, 34, 37, 67–8, 79, 96–8, 110

  Pamir Mountains 88

  Persian Gulf xviii, 7, 15, 21, 23, 37, 59, 64, 78, 90–3, 103, 128

  phyle system 142

  plant domestication, see farming, origins of

  plough agriculture 75–7, 137

  Poliochni (Lemnos) 95

  Potlatch ceremony 105–8

  pottery 39, 46, 47–8, 55, 60, 77, 83, 86

  potter’s wheel 55, 60–1, 77, 92

  Proto-Elamite script 26

  Punt 22, 140, 146

  see also Red Sea

  Pusht-i Kuh 104

  pyramid complex 140–1, 145–6

  Pyramid Texts 34, 146–7

  pyramid towns 141–2

  Qustul (northern Sudan) 137, 140

  racial classification 5, 7, 105

  Red Sea 7, 23, 40, 47, 50, 52, 137, 140

  republicanism xv, 154–6, 163, 164–71

  Royal Tombs of Ur 34, 38, 95, 102